Literature Review

• Laticia Alexander's Literature Review

Narrative Learning

Laticia Alexander

Ball State University

Your Name	Commented On
Laticia Alexander	Group 3 - Dee and Raeanne

Narrative Learning

Do you remember the stories we heard growing up?  Such as the Boy Who Cried Wolf, this story is an example of narrative learning.  Our parents and grandparents taught us through narrative as we grew up.  Narrative learning often focuses on the stories of self.  Self-narrations are opportunities for the learner to reflect on their lives and remember what they have already learned.  Self-narratives are tools that can guide learners to future goals.  Narratives can be used to teach in a way that the learner can remember and relate to the characters or events in the narrative.  Narrative learning can be effective in both the online platform and the in person format traditionally taught in the classrooms.

General Themes

Narrative learning can be used in many different platforms.  Life stories can be used as tools to build confidence and help bring into focus the path to achieving future goals.   Narrative that tells a story while including learning opportunities are really impactful.  Especially when they are written in a way that the learners can relate or empathize to the characters.  Storytelling in general has great benefits in motivation and interest building.  Narratives can increase the positive experience thus increasing the students overall learning experience.

According to Clark (2010), “Being storytellers means that this is our way to bring some kind of coherence to the chaos of experience” (p. 3).  I argue that the storytelling is a learning experience in itself.  Without the story the experience doesn’t make sense.  In both online classes and traditional classrooms the practical application to life narratives can go in many different directions.  One application is to use the life narratives to focus on building rapport in a classroom or online to increase collaborative learning.  To generate a true collaborative learning environment everyone should be comfortable with and feel safe enough to share their feelings, thoughts, and knowledge with the class.  As educators, we need to nurture that safe environment so that the self-narrative can be a true learning experience.

            Another application is to use the self-narratives to focus on the future and not the past.  Yes, the past is important because it is what shaped us to the people we are today but the past is not where we are going.  We need to focus on taking the knowledge and self confidence that we gain in our self-narratives to outline our goals and methods to achieving those goals. According to Michelson (2013), sometimes you need to write both the past narrative and the future narrative at the same time to fully conceptualize the future goals and how to implement them. 

            The act of re-storying is to simply tell your own story.  This allows for self-reflection and you learn from your past experiences to continue to grow (Foote, 2015).  Research by Lindgren and McDaniel (2012), supports that narrative learning in an online format is found to be a positive experience for most students.  In their piloted online course they had 7% who said it wasn’t positive but that leaves 93% who believe that the narrative learning component was a positive experience.  Lindgren and McDaniel (2012) report that students report a higher level of critical thinking compared to other online courses.  Haverila, Myllyla, and Torp (2009) found that:  The learning environment should provide the students possibilities to utilize effective learning strategies like reflection, prior experience, conversations and authentic experiences in order to achieve better learning results. (p. 1)  These can all be found within narrative learning.

Implications

            There are many ways to incorporate the many different aspects of narrative learning into a classroom or online.  You can use life histories as a way for everyone to get to know everyone.  This also begins the journey to becoming a safe place to openly discuss some of those more difficult subjects.  You can implement narrative learning through an interview process; the interviews can be of anyone they admire or even the classmates themselves. 

            The life histories can be posted online for others to read and discuss.  This will often increase the student’s self-confidence.  This happens when others acknowledge their success or even their challenges and how they overcame those challenges.  One other application would be to have the students do a narrative on where they see their selves academically or professionally in three, five, or ten years from now.  Focusing on how they plan to get there.

            Online environment is a place where both of the suggestions above can be utilized to really enhance the student’s experience.  This motivates the students to participate more therefore they will get more out of the class.  Also recommend discussions in small groups that lead to presenting a summary of the discussion to the entire group.  The small group discussion allows for the group to get pretty close and able to have those difficult conversations that may not take place with the entire class involved.  With the presentation of the conversation the entire class can learn from that in depth conversation.

Reflection.

To reflect on my topic, I love the self-narratives power.  Power to teach others but maybe more importantly to teach oneself.  I have read an abundance of articles and researched too many ideas to count.  I would if had to do over again read ten articles and take the time to really dig into those articles to make sure I was not overwhelmed with data.  The only tip I have is common sense but I didn’t do it so I had to reread a lot of articles.  Take notes as you are reading the articles and have plenty of time to allow for reflection on what you read.

Table.

The main themes/ideas in the literature	Application of the main ideas in practice
There are many different ways to include narrative learning into a program.	Narrative Learning can be used in storytelling, online courses, and critical self-reflections.
Narrative learning can be used as a learning tool through self-reflection.	Life stories or narrations can be times to help with self-confidence and developing goals for the future.  Adult educators must put the focus on where a student is now and their future.  This allows the process to help guide the learner to the goals that he/she want to achieve.
Online learning through narrative can improve student success.	Using narrative learning in an online course setting increases the positive experience and increases the overall learning.

References

Clark, M. C. (2010). Narrative learning: Its contours and its possibilities. New Directions For Adult & Continuing Education, 2010(126), 3-11.

Foote, L. S. (2015). Re-Storying Life as a Means of Critical Reflection: The Power of Narrative Learning. Christian Higher Education, 14(3), 116-126.

Haverila, M., Myllyla, M., & Torp, H. (2009). Towards Innovative Virtual Learning in Vocational Teacher Education: Narratives as a Form of Meaningful Learning. European Journal Of Open, Distance And E-Learning, (1),

Lindgren, R., & McDaniel, R. (2012). Transforming Online Learning through Narrative and Student Agency. Educational Technology & Society, 15 (4), 344–355.

Michelson, E. (2011). Autobiography and Selfhood in the Practice of Adult Learning. Adult Education Quarterly: A Journal Of Research And Theory, 61(1), 3-21.

Michelson, E. (2013). If the Self Is a Text, What Genre Is It? Structure and Ideology in Narratives of Adult Learning. Adult Education Quarterly: A Journal Of Research And Theory, 63(3), 199-214.

• Julie Furnish's Literature Review

Narrative Learning

Literature Review

Julie Furnish

Ball State University

Your Name	Commented On
Julie Furnish	Michelle Rose Hobby
Julie Furnish	DeArtha Chambers

Introduction

            A narrative is a spoken or written account of connected events, such as a story. According to Clark, “through the examination of our own stories we can begin to understand the underlying purpose of narrative… make sense of our experience” (2001, pg. 87). When researching narrative learning, my first thought was the famous tale, The Tortoise and the Hare, in which Aesop’s characters race. At the end the reader shockingly learns the hare lost, which goes against most preconceived notions about quick moving rabbits. It contains a moral lesson for young and old through the tale. The moral lesson is believed to be, “thinking long-term and acting on principle will help with success” (Kanarek, 2013, pg. 5). This moral lesson demonstrates that success is earned by planning and acting accordingly. No matter the age or stage of life humans are in, narrative learning is a very powerful and commonly used teaching technique.

            According to Clark and Rossiter, we cohere events in our lives, and then “create sense out of chaos by establishing connections between and among experiences” (2008, pg. 62). Due to the connections built during our narrative, the details and feelings experienced are conveyed to the listener. Narrative learning can engage the audience on a basic level and aid them in understanding presented material.

General Themes

            Humans are “dynamic and fluid” (Clark, 2010, pg. 4). Humans are always changing and growing from things we learn and experience. At one point, Clark discusses work by Ochberg and how narrating a story helps us grow. Clark mentions that we “see personal stories as ‘the means by which identities may be fashioned’” (2010, pg. 4).

            Being able to tell a story provides “meaning to our experiences” (Clark, 2010, pg. 5). Having meaning to something a person experiences helps us evolve who we are as an individual. The stories we narrate will also be ever-changing because when we look back on an experience in five, ten, fifty years we may view it differently and not have the same opinion of the situation. We will also continually change our role in the narratives as we age, from the learner in high school to the teacher in adulthood.

This process can even be seen in what’s called narrative therapy. Therapists work with clients to re-story parts of their lives, to help them cope with very difficult situations that may be hindering other portions of their lives. This therapy helps the person change a story that is holding them back and learning to interpret it differently to better their lives. Clark and Rossiter sums up this therapy exceedingly well “it’s a matter of constructing a narrative for ourselves that enables us to deal with an experience” (2008, pg. 62). These are all examples of how humans grow through narrations and how it helps us change ourselves throughout our lifetimes.

             Another main component of narrative learning is more of a social aspect. Narrative learning’s social aspect is described phenomenally by Clark and Rossiter, “personal narratives… require an audience” (2008, pg. 63). The audience, according to Clark and Rossiter, can be “either real or imagined that responds to the narrative in some way” (2008, pg. 63). Since a narrative requires an audience, it should also be noted that “all narratives are culturally bound” (Clark, 2010, pg. 3). An example of this is a common stereotype seen in teenage girls. The cultural phase, seen particularly in young American women, is believed to have stemmed from the movie Valley Girls. These “valley girls” have a stereotype that follows them: ditzy or airhead behavior, the over use of ‘like’, and interest in materialist items to display wealth. When these individuals speak to another person, “like” is in nearly every sentence.

This demonstrates Clark’s point of a “story- shaped world populated by folklore, myth, popular culture, social scripts, religious traditions, political discourses, history, literature...” (2010, pg. 3). When we stay up on top of trends this enables us to “interpret our own and other people’s experience” (paraphrased by Clark, 2010, of Sarbin, 1993, pg. 59). This helps us better determine the narrator’s role in their story and how it may have helped them grow.

The final theme of narrative learning is it’s time related aspect. Rossiter discusses this aspect extensively in her paper, A Narrative Approach to Development: Implications for Adult Education. In her paper she quotes Polkinghorne (1988, pg. 11) who describes this time based aspect, “Narrative meaning functions to give form to the understanding of a purpose to life… it provides a framework for understanding the past events of one’s life and for planning future actions” (Rossiter, 1999, pg. 61). Rossiter goes on to mention the “temporal dimension” of narrative learning and that it “suggests a flow of time that accommodates the confluence  of past, present, and future in the process of meaning making” (1999, pg. 63). She is pointing out that our narrative will change meaning depending if we are discussing the future or past, yet provides meaning to our current time, the present. She demonstrates this point by stating that “the past is expressed as recollected story and the future through projected scenario… recollected story of the past can be richly elaborated, complete, and detailed” (1999, pg. 63). This brings us to the future, when someone describes their future, it is usually with a hope based inflections, and there usually isn’t rich detail because we have not lived this yet. When Rossiter discusses the present, she had this to say, “meeting place of the past and future… the balance point between identity and self- transcendence, the decision point between continuity and transformation” (1999, pg. 64). This is pointing us to realize that when a person is learning, we are transforming our previous self, and redefining our future, even just a little bit.

Implications

            Narrative learning has many advantages to be used as a teaching and learning style. It allows the narrator and audience to define their sense of self, whether it’s personal or the speaker’s. Since narratives are influenced by cultural norms or language, understanding is based on common themes or experiences. If an individual is not accustomed to that particular cultural norm, like the Valley Girls, more interaction may be required so a better understanding can be formed between the narrator and audience. These can normally be experienced in journal writings or reading stories aloud and discussing what the students took from them. This helps demonstrate their understanding of the topic and does provide insight from other student’s perspectives. Another implication that can be used is case studies. These provide open ended questions that learners must come up with a solution on their own. This also allows the individuals to help define their sense of self more and expand their cultural experiences. One major issue with narrative learning that should be mentioned is that it is time consuming due to its story telling nature.

Reflection

            When picking a topic, I was quickly drawn to narrative learning since it is one commonly used in Biology and Health Sciences. I had never done a lot of research on it though, so the concept of it was automatically intriguing. Personally, this style of learning is one of the easiest for me since it requires me to think similarly to the person that is speaking and relate to their feelings. This style has pretty much always been taught to me in story problems or case studies and I was required to read and think critically to find a solution to the problem presented.

I have personally written many literature reviews, none in this format, but it is the same concept. For a lot of my resources I first used the Ball State Library’s Databases to search for articles that applied. From there I did search on Google some for articles and journals about narrative learning. I did find that coming up with the themes or concepts I wanted to highlight made it easier to go through and find information. I would definitely suggest working on this early. It is very easy to get behind when working on a literature review since you have to sort through so much information.

Tables

	Main Themes/ Ideas	Application of Main Ideas
Idea 1	Defines the self	Formation of one’s own identity is accomplished most readily through writing in a journal and storytelling. This allows an individual to think freely and creatively and come up with their own styles and concepts.
Idea 2	Narrative is Dialogue	Like noted above, a narrative is a conversation and aids mean-making experiences. This can be accomplished through writing personal endings to narrations. Students can then discuss their endings and why they ended their story that way. Another way this can be applied is through case studies or open ended questions. Provide groups of students the same problem and have them discuss their solutions.
Idea 3	Narratives are Time related	This concept is a bit more difficult to implement, but can be done through reading more historical based stories or reflection problems. Then have students look at futuristic stories or articles written of dream jobs or their future. The difference between these demonstrates the time relation of narratives. They are still all stories, just with different meanings in them.

References

Clark, M.C. Narrative learning: its contours and its possibilities. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 2010 (126), 3-11.

Clark, M.C. and Rossiter M. Narrative learning: third update on adult learning theory. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 2008 (119), 61-70.

Clark, M.C. (2001). Off the beaten path: some creative approaches to adult learning. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 2001 (89), 87-90.

Kanarek J. (2013). The tortoise and the hare: a new moral for an old fable. The Intellectual Standard, 2013 (2), 2-5.

Rossiter, M. A narrative approach to development: implications for adult education. Adult Education Quarterly, 1999 (50), 56- 71.

• Nichole Mann's Literature Review

Review of the Literature: Narrative Learning

Name	Commented On:
Nichole Mann	Alyssa McGrath, Group 5 Tashina Manual, Group 3

Overview

            Narrative learning is an exciting addition to the toolbox for adult learning. Narrative learning moves beyond rote memorization and facts to incorporate the stories of both the learner and others to allow the learner to more completely and intuitively understand the topic at hand. Case studies and other forms of narrative learning have been used as a teaching tool in fields like psychology, medicine, law, and social work, but gained steam in the 1990s as an effective tool for more diverse types of adult learning (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007; p. 209). As educators become increasingly aware of the power of narrative learning to engage adult learners, it’s valuable to understand the foundational components, emerging strategies for narrative learning, and how narrative strategies enhance cross-cultural learning.

Components of Narrative Learning

For adult learners, learning is often change centered, and individual change is an important component of narrative learning. Clark and Rossiter (2008) indicated, “Understanding identity as a narrative construction is another way of conceptualizing personal change.” The very act of using narrative as a learning strategy is encouragement to initiate a change process. The educator is charged with assisting the learner see how the information presented fits into the change they are seeking. Introspection is one way that narrative learning occurs. For a student to understand concepts more deeply though their own narrative, they need space to explore their thoughts and feelings in a safe and honest environment. Journaling is an example of a widely used introspective narrative learning technique: “The reflective journal can be a vehicle for the student to define, question, and interact with content, concepts, ideas, values, beliefs, and feelings” (Hubbs & Brand, 2005). Clark and Rossiter (2008) also described journaling as “self-reflection directed toward greater self-understanding.”

Narrative learning also requires helping learners understand how their story intertwines with the larger narrative. An important component of narrative learning is that it is social. While it seems contradictory that narrative learning needs both individual and social components, the synthesis is what allows narrative activities to expand what the student already knows. Understanding oneself allows the learner to connect to the material, and hearing the narratives of others allows them to reach further to understand realities and perceptions besides their own. Students tend to understand the social aspect of learning on an intuitive level. Tarule (1992) explained, “A simple question-‘How do you go about learning new things?’-posed to adults, whether currently enrolled as students or not, most frequently evokes a response of equal simplicity: ‘I ask someone. I like to learn from other people’…Adults enter the academy ‘experience-rich and theory-poor,’ in contrast to younger students who often are theory-rich but years short in experience.” This observation that adult students like to learn from one another, but are often “experience rich and theory poor” is an engaging perception. Educators can bring the theory, but the social element is where learners really start to pay attention. Educators become facilitators in narrative classrooms, introducing the key ideas to spark a collection of resources to emerge-the students’ understanding and perceptions. From that collective, learners are able to make meaning.

Making meaning is the application component of narrative learning. Once a student has considered their context and become aware of others’ contexts, they must decide what that means on a larger scale. Students begin to see that the layers of their own narrative and the narratives of others are influenced by various factors, cultural and personal contexts, and situational factors, and apply that understanding to their overall conclusions about the topic: “As they gain understanding, they also begin to understand that they themselves are narratively constituted and narratively positioned; this applies to themselves personally, as well as to groups, societies, and cultures” (Clark & Rossiter, 2008). Using narrative techniques permits students to see how their own experiences and those of others play into the larger narrative and become meaningful to the larger world.

The Role of Cross-Cultural Narratives

            The potential to incorporate cultural considerations into learning is one of the most meaningful ways that narrative learning can contribute to the adult learning environment. Cultural interactions take something that literally cannot be understood intuitively and creates a mechanism for meaning beyond academic understanding. In their study on African-American families with children with disabilities, Mattingly and Lawler (2000) explained, “narrative depictions are much more useful than abstract generalizations or belief statements in helping us to understand the complex and often quite tacit meanings (including dilemmas, hopes, anxieties and the like[.])”

            A major purpose of utilizing cross-cultural narratives in adult learning is to spur critical reflection. Critical reflection allows learners to “[identify] the inaccuracies of former assumptions and beliefs” (Foote, 2015). It is essential that learners are able to make these distinctions, especially when they are at odds with long held beliefs. Knowing that these assumptions are there is part of the reflective process, and understanding the intercultural context allows them to operationalize that knowledge. As Clark and Rossiter (2008) explain, “One example would be Americans recognizing they are positioned within a particular cultural narrative, one that privileges the individual over the community and emphasizes rights more than responsibilities; by recognizing this narrative situatedness, American learners could critique this larger narrative, question underlying assumptions and inherent power relationships.” Possibly the most powerful way for learners to come to these nuanced conclusions is through direct narrative from others who have experienced a different reality. “Narrative can play a potent role in helping to illuminate the world of the client—an especially important task when there are large differences between the cultural backgrounds of professionals and clients” (Mattingly & Lawlor, 2000).

New Strategies for Narrative Learning in Adult Education

            Narrative learning is increasingly taking forms other than direct storytelling, Hubbs and Brand’s “paper mirror” of written reflection, and case studies. Technology has created forms of access and expression that have not traditionally been part of the narrative learning model and carry new possibilities.

            Rossiter and Garcia (2010) cite the power of digital stories, “short vignettes that combine the art of telling stories with multimedia objects including images, audio, and video,” as teaching tools across cultures and experiences. They described how the experiences of domestic violence survivors, Cambodian mothers, and a range of other oft-unheard voices were able to share their stories around the world with digital media. Digital storytelling methods move past traditional documentary films or audio resources and become intentionally developed teaching tools: “not only do teachers tell stories about the content, but also—through their pedagogical choices—they construct a narrative of the content, a curricular story” (Rossiter & Garcia, 2010).

            Cross-cultural interviewing is another learning tool that has great potential in narrative learning settings. Journalism gives some excellent resources and guidelines for cross-cultural communication that may have implications for the narrative learning experience. The field of journalism places much emphasis on trust building in cross-cultural relationships, citing an “interactive negotiation” of understanding between participants, even when the interviewer may not be fully confident with the social norms or contexts of the interviewee (Kenny & Akita, 2008). Interviews between people from different cultures provide a structured context for information sharing and discussion, but must be navigated differently than interviews focused around areas of cultural similarity.

Summary

            Narrative learning has the benefit of having one foot in each world: it’s a growing field with room to expand and innovate, but also has a long history with good outcomes for adult learners in medicine, law, and the social sciences. Narrative learning requires that learners be pushed to incorporate what they know about themselves, others, and the world and expand that knowledge to create a meaningful conclusion about the nature of truth. Cross-cultural narratives have some particularly exciting implications, and new techniques for utilizing narrative learning, like digital storytelling and cross-cultural interviewing strategies, opens up the world even more for adult learners to both share their own stories and to perceive others’ in a new way.

Implications

            Change is a goal of adult learning; adult learners often pursue educational opportunities precisely because they are seeking some sort of change. This makes narrative learning an excellent path to lasting, deep understanding of complex ideas. Introspection is an essential component of starting this process. Learners may not have considered how their social, familial, and personal experiences have shaped the assumptions they have about the world. Telling one’s own story allows them to see it from a different perspective and apply that perspective in new, more honest ways. Learners also need opportunities to think beyond themselves, so safe spaces for discussion are a powerful tool for bringing new stories and perspectives into learners’ worldview. Finally, learners need to be provided with opportunities to synthesize what they’ve learned about themselves and the world with the context of the topic. Introspection and dialogue create pathways to the larger world, and the instructor facilitates the development of new theories and assumptions.

            Cross-cultural narratives take the abstract and make it into a more relatable lesson on the perspectives of people different than oneself. By exposing learners to cross-cultural narratives rather than isolated facts, educators make them real and, perhaps more importantly, relatable. The narratives are much more effective at showing the learner why they should care. Interactions with people from other cultures also challenge learners to critically examine their way of thinking. The narrative allows the learner to relate, and once that relationship is drawn, the learner is challenged to understand areas of dissonance with their previous ideas and question gaps in how they relate to the other culture.

            Two potentially impactful ways to bring cross-cultural narratives to adult learning environments are digital storytelling and cross-cultural interviewing. Digital storytelling moves past the story-focused format of other narrative methods and engages learning centered methods. Audio, video, and art pieces are specifically created and engaged with the learner in mind, expanding their perception of the way others exist in the world. Cross-cultural interviewing, unlike traditional interviews, are not simply about information gathering. Cross-cultural interviews are an immersion activity. Learners should be encouraged to create a dialogue centered around understanding the other person’s narrative, to include learning about cultural expectations and putting that knowledge into effect, either through modification of behavior or asking clarifying questions.          

Reflection

            I have written literature reviews before, so I wasn’t too concerned with the process of finding information and synthesizing it into a review. The most difficult part was choosing the areas I wanted to focus on with such a broad topic. Since my group has started making decisions on what we’d like our project to be, I decided to approach narrative learning from a cross-cultural perspective to align with resources that may be useful in the project. I was surprised that there was not more information on this topic. However, the articles I found were very good quality. I also noticed that our textbook was referenced in several of them. I used EBSCOHost to find my articles; I would definitely say this is my preferred scholarly search. Once I was ready to start writing, I created an outline using APA style headings. This was tremendously helpful in staying on track. When I started to get off topic or stumbled on a good quote for a different section of the paper than I was actively working on, I could move it to the correct heading and come back to it. I set up my references as I went as well. I’ve found that with APA style papers, this strategy is very effective for me. I think our project will take some time to get fully fleshed out, but my group is responsive and engaged, so I’m looking forward to sharing ideas and developing an interesting program.

Main Ideas from Literature	Implications in Practice
Components of Narrative Learning	·         Engage learners in introspection to identify personal contexts and spur change. ·         Provide opportunities and spaces for free exchange of information. ·         Help students synthesize personal, social, and societal perceptions to create meaning.
Role of Cross-Cultural Narratives	·         Narratives create more intuitive understanding ·         Cross-cultural interactions engage critical reflection
New Strategies in Narrative Learning	·         Digital storytelling ·         Cross-cultural interviewing

References

Clark, M. C., & Rossiter, M. (2008). Narrative learning in adulthood. New Directions For Adult

            & Continuing Education, 2008(119), 61-70. doi:10.1002/ace.306

Foote, L. S. (2015). Re-Storying Life as a Means of Critical Reflection: The Power of Narrative

Learning. Christian Higher Education, 14(3), 116-126. doi:10.1080/15363759.2015.1028580

Hubbs, D. L., & Brand, C. F. (2005). The Paper Mirror: Understanding Reflective

 Journaling. Journal Of Experiential Education, 28(1), 60-71.

Kenney, R., & Akita, K. (2008). When west writes east: In search of an ethic for cross-

cultural interviewing. Journal Of Mass Media Ethics, 23(4), 280-295. doi:10.1080/08900520802497629

Mattingly, C., & Lawlor, M. (2000). Learning from stories: Narrative interviewing in cross-

            cultural research. Scandinavian Journal of Occupational Therapy, (7), 4–14.

Merriam, S.B., Caffarella, R.S., & Baumgartner, L.M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A

            comprehensive guide. (3^rd ed.). San Franscisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Rossiter, M., & Garcia, P.A. (2010). Digital storytelling: A new player on the narrative field.

            New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education. (126) doi: 10.1002/ace.370

Tarule, J. M. (1992). Dialogue and adult learning. Liberal Education, 78(4), 12.

• Carrie Reisner's Literature Review

Name:	Commented On:
Carrie Reisner	Katie Ross Raeanne Schlotterbeck

Introduction

Storytelling may be one of the oldest forms of communication, having been in existence prior to the development of formal language. Humans are inclined to make sense of the world through storytelling, that is, by narrating it to others.  Mattingly & Lawlor (2000) clearly describe narratives as “event-centered and historically particular, located in a particular time and place.  Stories concern action, more specifically human action, and particularly social interaction…while they unfold over time, the order is more than mere sequences but reveal a sense of the whole” (p. 6).

Narrative learning is a constructivist model of learning as it is focused on how individuals make meaning of their lives and the lives of others within a social world.  We “construct our narratives by drawing on a cultural supply of normal events, reasonable causes, and plausible explanations” which then “confer legitimacy on our narratives” (Clark & Rossiter, 2008, p. 63).  In addition to individual narratives, society also constructs cultural, familial, and organizational narratives which provide the context to understand the meanings of the stories being told (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007).

Three Levels of Narrative Learning
            Narrative learning can occur at three levels.  First, we learn by hearing a story.  When individuals hear a story, they may connect it to their own experiences or they may be transported to a place they have not experienced before.  We hear stories about people in our own families, communities, or countries.  But we often hear stories about people whose cultures and lived experiences are very different from our own.  Hearing stories engages us cognitively, emotionally, and spiritually.  Second, we learn by telling a story.  The act of telling a story allows us to take the details of an event and put it together in a coherent way, making connections between other experiences and concepts.  An individual can tell a story to themselves or others, in verbal or written form, and the process of doing so may reveal gaps in understanding as he or she tries to put the pieces of the story together. The last level is recognizing stories, which occurs when an individual understands their own position within a broader, cultural narrative.  This level of learning can be emancipatory in nature as it allows one to understand oppression and exploitation that they may be experiencing in a given situation (Clark, 2010; Clark & Rossiter, 2010). 
            Mattingly and Lawlor (2000) describe a situation in which a low-income African-American woman in an urban area struggled to have her daughter’s illness seriously examined by multiple doctors and hospitals.  In hearing her story, the researchers were able to sense her frustration and identify moments when her race and socioeconomic position put her at a disadvantage within the healthcare system.  It was important for the researchers to recognize the broader narrative in which the participant’s story was taking place in order to understand how challenging it may be for marginalized groups to receive adequate and timely treatment.   

Narrative as Literary Genre          
          Narrative learning can be examined as a literary genre by considering two dichotomous views: the Bildungsroman, which depicts a coming of age story wherein the protagonist overcomes obstacles in order to achieve a cultural norm; and magical realism, which claims that “what is ordinary in one culture or historical circumstance is fantastic in another, and vice versa” (Michelson, 2012, p. 208).  Narrative learning in the form of Bildungsroman, a primarily Western genre, follows the story of an individual whose life circumstances have led them astray, either through economic instability, domestic issues, or lack of professional fulfillment.  Psychologically and/or emotionally they are troubled, and may be marginalized by society.  Their journey leads to greater self-awareness and personal growth, and eventually they fulfill the roles that are customary within the cultural context.  As such, “the Bildungsroman is able to simultaneously depict an unfolding of individual development and the enfolding of the individual into social institutions and roles” (Michelson, 2012, p. 203).  Educational biographies can be viewed in this way, as an individual frequently seeks out education in an effort to seek personal and professional fulfillment, as well as to be viewed as a productive member of society.  Learning takes place at two times: as an individual lives through a particular experience and as he or she remembers the experience and is able to identify failures and growth. 
          The magical realism genre is primarily located in the East, postcolonial, or marginalized settings and is deeply rooted in the historical and political context of the protagonist.  As such, “magical realism, for all its whimsy, has a clear relationship both to the experiences of marginalized peoples and to the historical record (Michelson, 2012, p. 208).  This genre allows the audience to understand the experience of those who have been displaced or oppressed.  Viewing narrative learning from this perspective allows an individual to recognize that there may be larger forces in play that impede an individual’s ability to fully construct a sense of self without separating from the historical context. 

Forms of Narrative Learning
            Narrative learning can occur in several different ways.  Amongst the most popular forms are journals, autobiographical writing, and case studies (Clark & Rossiter, 2010).  Journals, in which an individual freely details thoughts, experiences, and emotions, has several benefits, including a means of coping, a means of discovering, and a means of identifying one’s voice.  Learning through journaling occurs through reflection and deeper understanding when one is able to make connections between old and new knowledge (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007). Autobiographical writing takes this level of learning a step further as it requires an individual to step outside oneself in order to search for meaning within the experiences.  Educational autobiographies can serve as a means to examine not just experiences but the familial and cultural narratives that surround learning, and what has been learned from those experiences (Clark & Rossiter, 2010; Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007). Finally, case studies allow learners to examine an issue using either a real or fictitious story.  A case will contain a problem that is likely to be experienced in the real world, and serves as a means for examining solutions through theory or other foundational information in order for students to develop possible solutions (Clark & Rossiter, 2010). 

Implications

          Narrative learning can be a powerful resource for adult educators.  It evokes a deep level of learning that may be difficult to achieve through other means and can be transformative in nature.  Experience is a hallmark of adult learning theories, such as andragogy, and narrative learning taps right into this invaluable resource (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007). 
          Considering the vast variety of adult education environments, narrative learning could be applied to nearly every situation. First, it is important for adult educators to look for opportunities to incorporate narrative learning into the curriculum and to understand when hearing a story, telling a story, or recognizing a narrative would be beneficial to a learning situation.  Perhaps a first-person account of a historical event would help to shed light on how the event personally impacted those involved.  Or a case study may be used to help learners in a workforce training program understand how to apply foundational knowledge to a real life situation.  Or asking learners to write reflectively about their experiences over the course of a semester may help them to tie various concepts together. 
          It is also important that adult educators understand that each individual learner has their own narrative and that narrative is further shaped by the family and cultural narrative in which they live.  Sharing a brief story that illustrates the educational biographies of students can greatly enhance an educator’s understanding of the dynamics that can fill the room.  It would be equally effective if the teacher shared his or her own journey in order to reduce the power structure or dispel fears that students may have about entering an educational endeavor.    

Reflection

          I am not sure why, but I struggled with this literature review a bit.  I quickly found sources using Academic Search Premier and ERIC databases, however, I found that the articles were highly self-referential so it was challenging to find a lot of new information from one piece to the next.  For example, the textbook frequently cites Clark and Rossiter, and Clark and Rossiter frequently cite each other and previous collaborative work.  I did not find any of their articles particularly rich with examples as one would expect from researchers with a large body of writing on a single topic.  I think I could have benefitted from reading one of their books instead of journal articles but time did not allow for that. 
          The piece that I found most helpful and interesting was by Michelson (2012), If the self is a text, what genre is it? Structure and ideology of narratives in adult learning.  Through the use of literary genres, the author deeply explored narrative conventions, especially the importance of recognizing the cultural context of a narrative. For example, it is important to understand that coming of age types of stories are highly grounded in Western, and primarily White, cultures. Personally, I could relate to the portion of the article dedicated to this genre as I frequently tell stories of my rocky journey through early adulthood.  I think this article was most helpful in addressing the cross-cultural aspect of our group project because individual stories can only be understood when rooted in the broader historical, political, and socioeconomic context of a given situation. 

Table

Idea	Main Themes from Literature	Implications for Practice
Three Levels of Narrative Learning	We learn from hearing stories, telling stories, and recognizing stories within the context of the narrative of the culture in which we are living.	Adult educators need to be aware of when narrative learning can enhance a particular learning situation.
Narrative Learning as Literary Genre	Two dichotomous genres: the Bildungsroman as a protagonist who overcomes challenges to achieve personal growth and societal acceptance; and magical realism which considers the historical and political context of the setting and how that influences an individual sense of self.	Adult educators should recognize both the narrative of the individual learner as well as the cultural narrative in which the learning is taking place.
Forms of Narrative Learning	Journals, autobiographical writing, and case studies all serve as meaningful narrative learning experiences.	Adult educators should take advantage of these learning strategies in order to deepen student understanding and to allow for critical reflection.

 References

Clark, M. C. (2010). Narrative learning: Its contours and its possibilities. New Directions for
            Adult and Continuing Education, 2010(126), 3-11. doi:10.1002/ace.367
Clark, M. C., & Rossiter, M. (2008). Narrative learning in adulthood. New Directions for Adult
            and Continuing Education, 2008(119), 61-70. doi:10.1002/ace.306
Mattingly , C., & Lawlor, M. (2000). Learning from Stories: Narrative Interviewing in Cross-
            cultural Research. Scandinavian Journal of Occupational Therapy, 7(1), 4-14.
            doi:10.1080/110381200443571
Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A
          comprehensive guide. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Michelson, E. (2013). If the self is a text, what genre is it? Structure and ideology in
            narratives of adult learning. Adult Education Quarterly, 63(3), 199-214.
            doi:10.1177/0741713612442785

• Pam Shawl's Literature Review

Pam Shawl

Literature Review

Narrative Learning

Pam Shawl	Commented On
	Kimberly Neal
	DeArtha Chambers

Introduction

                Narrative learning is learning through stories. However, there is more to it than hearing the stories. Narrative learning also involves making sense of the story and deciding how to relate the story to ourselves. Narrative learning can take place in our work, education and personal life.

When I think of narrative learning, I think of hearing stories from my grandparents. Through their stories, I would learn through my family’s experiences and could apply what I had learned to my own life situations. I also think of mentor’s that I have had throughout my career where my mentors have told me stories of their past work experiences. Through their stories, I can apply what they have told me to work experiences throughout my career. Lastly, when I think of narrative learning, I think of college professors that I have had through my education who have shared their real life work experiences with their students. Through their shared stories, I gain knowledge that can be applied to my work in the future. In reflecting on how often I gain knowledge through narrative learning as an adult, I realize that I have used narrative learning in adulthood often.

General Themes

            In my research on narrative learning, I have found scholarly articles through Ball State’s library database concerning how narrative learning is used in the adult classroom, how adults learn through narrative learning, the contours and possibilities of narrative learning, and the power of narrative learning. Learning through stories is the basic premise of narrative learning.

We learn through stories that are heard, told and recognized.  When stories are heard, the stories come from outside the student and are received and interpreted. These stories become powerful to us and as a result we are engaged in the learning process as we connect ourselves to the story. When stories are told, we become the actor and link ourselves to the story so that can find examples from their experiences and apply it to what is being told. When we learn through recognizing stories, we connect ourselves with something that we relate to personally: groups, cultures and societies (Clark and Rossiter, 65).

           

Implications

Narrative learning in the classroom setting is unique in that is learning through storytelling. When applying narrative learning to the classroom setting, narrative learning can be a beneficial to the student in that they are learning more than through the story. The student is also conceptualizing the learning process. The student does this by:

-          Making sense of the story.

-          Deciding how the story relates to what they already know.

-          Confronting what they don’t understand.

-          Identifying the gaps.

In conceptualizing the learning process, the student is making sense of the story in their own way (Clark and Rossiter, 2008).

Reflection

This is the first time I have completed a Literature Review. I have never put a paper together in this format, but I am thankful for this experience, because I was able to find research sources for our group paper and was able to gain a better understanding of narrative learning and how it applies to adult learning. I have learned in doing my Literature Review to allow time to be engaged with my group in our discussions and that the Ball State online library is a great source for academic resources.

When I think of narrative learning, I think of how we learn throughout generations and how we learn throughout life. Books and classrooms are always present to create learning environments. Narrative learning is something we all have experienced in some way in that we have learned from stories we have either heard, told or recognized.

Table

	Main themes/ideas in the literature (General Themes)	Application of the main ideas in practice (Implications)
Idea 1	Learning through stories	We learn through stories heard, told and recognized.
Idea 2	Conceptualizing the learning process	We learn through engaging ourselves in the story.
Idea 3	Applying what is learned	We learn through applying the story to our experiences.

References

Clark, M. & Rossiter, M. (2008). Narrative Learning in Adulthood.

New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 65.

Clark, M., & Rossiter, M. (2008). Narrative Learning in the Adult Classroom.

Adult Education Conference.

Macnamara, M. (2014).

Narrative Learning in the Virtual Landscape: A Model From a Baccaluarate Program. Creative Nursing.

Wood, P. (2014).

Historical imagination, narrative learning and nursing practice: Graduate nursing students’ reader-responses to a nurses storytelling from the past. Nursing in Education Practice.